01.02 Philosophy: Non-consensual slavery: Eden

By about ten thousand years ago, the egalitarian structure of society was being played out to the full. Slavery was absent, but not now for long. Humans continued to explore, develop, experience, create, invent, communicate and live a progressive life. Culture progressed too, a culture influenced by new ways of thinking, by exploring new concepts and ideas, by a constant redefinition of what it meant to be human. Human society and culture evolve and new ways of doing and thinking about things are discovered.

Steadily people began to consider the opportunities to be offered by living in more permanent settlements and thus began to stray away from the more nomadic lifestyle that was typical hitherto. Temporary buildings became more solid, more durable, and more permanent utilizing locally available materials, and soon hamlets turned into villages. Tribalism was becoming enhanced by a more pastoral and semi-permanent type of living. The group followed the migrations of animals and was led increasingly more by nature’s patterns.

This would not have been possible without the innovation of domestication. Dogs had already been domesticated to facilitate hunting and as companions, and now it was the turn for plants and other animals to come under human control and manipulation. It was a small-scale operation, to begin with. Tribes could not take on too much extra work, due to limited numbers. Naturally growing fruits, herbs, legumes, and nuts were a starting point. They could be foraged and then transplanted to a more convenient location, where several different varieties could be tended to in the same vicinity. This saved time, and the effort to go out and find. It would not be too difficult to devote a secure area amongst these plants for the domestication of certain animals. Eventually, seeds were collected and sown on land close to the villages. Slowly humans were becoming more self-sufficient. There was increasingly less need for hunting on a wide scale as domestication and the more permanent lifestyle enabled people to grow and tend enough food sources close to home. Humans’ energy was given over to tending the land. Humans began to master land around their living places.

It is difficult to determine whether domestication led to permanent settlements, or whether the desire to live in one place forced humans to manage their food sources in a more rigorous and controlled way. It is easy to imagine the environments surrounding the seasonal camps being more and more controlled, with a few seasonal plants being transplanted for ease of access until eventually, it became easier to stay in one location and bring other food sources to that place. The tribal and pastoral societal structures were challenged by this move to permanent settlements, and there began the first tentative steps towards a different social structure. The halcyon days of collectivism were fading as a new social structure was beginning to take shape. This was the first path on the way to civilization and it would change and challenge the collective consciousness of humans dramatically, and permanently.

The first consideration for the establishment of any settlement has to be a suitable, fertile location. It would have started small, but with the potential to expand, and it would have been situated near to many natural resources which could be harnessed and exploited, but also with the capacity for space for further agricultural development and domestication. A water source would be essential too, as would space for housing and working buildings, and access to a range of natural materials.

Whatever the virtues or vices of changing to permanent settlements, they were incredibly successful for these tribal communities, and eventually, authority was surrendered to the men. Up until now, women had held positions of authority. Women were more typically shamans and healers. Women held the wisdom. Women held the real power. Women were represented in art. Men, on the other hand, were employed for hunting, for more immediate needs. With the rise of civilization, men had to find a new role, and it was a leadership role that they undertook.

Life around the rivers Tigris and Euphrates was well developed and established by around eight thousand years ago since the time, long before, when a nomadic tribe must have stumbled across the fertile lands there and decided to make the most of them. It was here that one of the first known civilizations became established. The weather was favorable, wetter than today, the land certainly fertile due to the silt from the rivers, with plants in abundance all around and a huge range of animals, a major water supply, local materials for building and tool making, and lots of space. Here, presumably, a tribe settled, and it wasn’t long before others found this idyllic Eden. There was nothing in won't, compared to the widespread scavenging and hunting that tribes usually had to endure. Life was perfect and pleasant, and it seemed to those settling there that they had the perfect sort of existence.

And so the community grew as it gained in security. The original seasonal settlements became more permanent, the buildings more secure and longer-lasting and the surrounding land was tilled and tended, with plants and animals domesticated to serve the community.

It would take a few thousand years before the settlement was large enough to be considered a city, and as it grew the social structure began to change dramatically. The old egalitarian system of collective ownership was being replaced. With a community so large it was not possible to follow that old model of living. Perhaps this was what became known as the great fall of man: the moving away from a situation where people lived as equals, each contributing a role for the betterment of the group, towards a situation where people were organized hierarchically, and with this development came slavery, greed, power, and its abuse.

Farming enabled communities to obtain a surplus of food, for the first time, and this was useful for trade. Trade brought wealth and a range of previously unobtainable items and materials. Farming also requires a workforce: women were required to produce that workforce, and alongside this, enemies, who had in earlier times been slaughtered, could now be put to use to increase the community’s wealth and food stockpile by forcing them into slavery. Enslaving enemies brought great benefits to the victor with the defeated punished and humiliated, and the superior tribe given higher status and power.

As the social structure changed, other types of slavery were introduced. Slaves could be found from within the community. Some were led into slavery as punishment for crimes committed, others for failing to repay a debt, others who fled from other places to seek refuge, others due to the accident of birth, and still others too weak to survive alone who perhaps chose the path of slavery. And as the slave population grew and the desire for a greater workforce, leaders became greedy for more. Kidnapping and piracy would have been common to satisfy a demand, and slaves could be commercially sold and bought for the highest price.

The men took control, and naturally, a hierarchy began to be formed, the larger the community grew. The tribal-pastoral structure with a few tens of people is a manageable number to live with, but when the community grows bigger it is difficult for that community to bond cohesively, as before. Tribalism only works with limited numbers of people. Above a certain number, the brain instinctively resorts to considering hierarchy, stereotypes, and other models to understand and live with so many different people. Consequently, with the rise of permanent settlements and the innovation of agriculture, tribalism gave way to pastoral living, which in turn gave ways to chiefdoms, a society based on simple hierarchies.

Chiefdoms developed as the populations grew, where one group, one tribe became the dominant one and took control. Other groups were given their place as the hierarchy of the larger community developed. Over time, these original tribal groupings merged as jobs and talents were recognized and people assigned appropriate roles within the emerging community. And as these chiefdoms developed and the population and wealth increased, more complex communities grew into civilizations.

The community which lived in this area between the two great rivers was one of the first complex civilizations, the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer (modern Iraq), though in this period civilizations were emerging all over the world, and every single civilization in all continents and all cultures used slavery, though there were a few exceptions, most notably the Achaemenid Persian Empire (modern Iran).

Mesopotamia is a useful civilization to start with when considering slavery as there are extant records and a fair amount of evidence. It was here that natural forces had to be controlled and tamed. To guarantee an efficient and secure food supply the land had to be intensively irrigated, and this required much work, and much of that labor was obtained from slaves. To begin with, the slaves were few, but as the success of the settlement became more widespread, so did the attacks, and with every defeat, the slave workforce was increased.

As a result of this hard work, the Sumerians were able to produce a surplus that was so necessary to develop and extend their civilization which was used to trade for much-needed resources not obtainable locally, such as timber, stone, and later metal. As civilization grew and the trade increased, temporary buildings could be replaced with more permanent structures, giving rise to a more permanent settlement and eventually a properly built city. Up until this time, buildings had been made from the readily available clay from the banks of the rivers. This clay was mixed with other materials to create bricks, which were strong and thick. Meanwhile, all around the world, other civilizations were developing in similar ways. The Mesopotamian civilization of the Amorites soon become the most dominant, particularly under King Hammurabi and it was during his reign that the first written record concerning slavery was produced, collated as ‘The Code of Hammurabi’ by about 1760 BCE. It demonstrates how hierarchical society had become by this time with the king being given almost god-like status. The code outlines a series of rules, and it is quite clear that throughout society there were distinct differences between the many classes. It is also clear from this time that the state itself, rather than individual citizens, was the most important element to be protected. The state itself had more protection than anything or anyone else.

When referring to slaves, the code does recognize their worth and value. A slave during this period was a precious commodity and slave owners had a legal duty to protect their property. A slave had certain rights, and the right to life was one of them; a slave owner did not have the right to kill his slave. A runaway slave could, according to the law, be executed, though more often would be shackled to prevent further disobedience. With those forced into slavery due to debt, a fixed-term slave period was assigned, usually three years.

Later, under the dominant Assyrian empire, the number of slaves increased dramatically, as there was a need for a large workforce to build the mighty palaces and government buildings, and as the supreme civilization of the region came constantly under attack from jealous rivals. Thousands of enemies were captured and put to use as slaves to build and magnify the greatness of the kingdom. Torture, rape, and plunder were common. Truly, the days of an egalitarian society were long over and this new social order of dominance by the most powerful became the norm. In their increasing numbers, humans experienced both the richness and the depravity of their potential as a species.

The Assyrians were eventually surpassed by the Babylonians as the dominant civilization in the Middle East, and this power adopted similar practices to those before: they waged war, plundered resources, burnt villages, and enslaved thousands to increase the empire’s stronghold over the region. King Nebuchadnezzar extended the empire vastly, and in the process managed to enslave thousands of Hebrews, mostly from Jerusalem, and it would take years before they were finally released from captivity, by the Persians. And again the projects of the ruling elite required a huge workforce. Slaves were often trained to become experts in certain skills: metalwork, stone masonry, tapestry, carpet weaving, sewing, as well as used for ordinary building work and especially domestic labor. Furthermore, they were also conscripted into the army when a major offensive was due, and wealthier slave owners would donate slaves to perform duties in the temples of the gods. In addition, women, and probably some men, were required for personal slave duties, such as dressing, cleaning, grooming, and, of course, sex.

As the power and authority of certain individuals grew, slaves were increasingly used for more personal services. A two-tier slave hierarchy was developing. The majority of slaves were remote from their owners and simply used to obey orders, though alongside these some other more valued slaves became important in a more personal way. These slaves were required to serve a master or mistress directly, and become a sort of extension of them, knowing what, how, and when to perform certain, more intimate duties.

Mesopotamian slaves were branded, presumably with a red-hot iron, as were animals, making it easier to track down runaway slaves, which was a common problem as the laws of the time attest. They also were required to wear a ‘dog tag’ made of clay, around the neck. They became status symbols and were an outward manifestation of the owner’s wealth, and so slave masters would encourage their slaves to marry or would even arrange a marriage for a slave, as of course, any offspring would become owned as slaves too and could be sold, and they remained slaves until their owner died, at which point they became free.

Life, however, was not all bleak, for slaves were granted a certain amount of independence. Even though they were branded and owned, some slaves, according to their status, were permitted to own property and animals, to save money, to conduct a profession or business, and to enjoy other opportunities available to free citizens. They could be called as witnesses in court, and some obtained some high administrative positions. These lucky slaves might even be able to save up enough to buy their freedom.

The Fertile Crescent was home to many civilizations that utilized its natural and physical resources. Its vastness encompassed land from the Persian Sea in the east, through to Egypt and the valley of the Nile in the west, and it was here that a quite different civilization existed and developed. Life here was more secure, as Egypt was more protected and less able to be invaded, due to the desert and the sea. The kingdom (originally there were two) was ruled over by dynasties of pharaohs and to ensure their elevation as divine beings great monuments were designed and erected, along with extensive artistic work.

Slavery was not so much a concern for the Egyptians as they had ample citizens within the kingdom who would be used when required. The vast majority of people were peasants who were tied to the land. They were not slaves, and some owned their own homes, though were worked hard and expected to yield results from the land, and if the land was sold, they were bound to the land. As their work was essential to the community’s food supply and more particularly to the community’s wealth creation and continuance, they were exempt from military service, though they could be drafted to work on major building projects.

Those living in Egypt who were denoted as slaves were usually prisoners of war and foreigners, though their numbers were relatively low, whenever possible, or assigned tasks according to demand, but were all owned by the Pharaoh. These slaves gradually became assimilated into the peasant class and were allowed to marry into it. Slavery was not a prominent feature of society for the Egyptians as it was for most other dominant civilizations in the region.

One group of people who were enslaved by the Egyptians were the Israelites. They had originated from Sumer, from the city of Ur, and had settled in Palestine until famine drove them into Egypt to seek refuge. They were slaves in as much as they were required to work in exchange for their food and shelter. They were not owned as such, as were very few slaves in the Egyptian empire. They were used as a labor force, just like the peasant class. The Israelites, however, wanted to thrive in their own right, so when the opportunity arose to leave Egypt they did so, under the leadership of Moses, who led them back towards Palestine, and once there they settled and remained and their kingdom grew, until under King David Jerusalem was conquered and became the capital.

It was during Solomon’s reign, (David’s son), that slavery began to feature more prominently in the Israelite civilization. Solomon reduced much of the population to serfdom, a similar position to the Egyptian peasants, and forced this huge group of people to labor on his ambitious building projects. There were many slaves, too, who were foreign prisoners taken in war, some were purchased from the Phoenician slave traders, and there were those who were in debt who sold themselves into slavery.

The lawmakers of the time tried to ensure that slaves were protected, to a degree. There were limits as to how long slaves who were serving a debt could be held in slavery, usually, this was six years. And every fifty years, or so the law decreed, all slaves were released and sent back to their families, though it seems this law was hardly ever enacted properly. Slaves were protected from death by their masters, and if any violence was perpetrated against a slave he was given his freedom. All sorts of advice were given to slave owners urging them to treat their slaves with a degree of respect and compassion, as part of the extended family, even to the extent where slave owners were encouraged to keep the children of slaves with their parents.

And so, slavery was taking on a new guise and it was religion that was influencing how slavery developed in this society, and often slaves were deliberately bought by religious people for them to be set free. It was extraordinary for the time for various sects to condemn slavery as powerfully as they did, though their cries of injustice would not be heard, and their ideas would not be explored again for centuries. Slavery was indeed by now an integral part of society and would remain so.